Books I would like to read again.

I would not out rightly say that I am going to mention about my favorite books because I myself am not sure about the exhaustiveness of the list. I am also very certain that the list will keep changing. Hence, without getting politically incorrect, I am heading this blog entry as 'the books which I would like to read again'.

Genre: Fiction

Love in the Time of Cholera: By Gabriel Garcia Marquez
The book is a semi autobiographical account wherein Marquez picks up the love story of his parents and subtly mixes it with his own imagination. The coalescence of the real happenings with imaginary events creates one of the most Quixotic and romantic Love stories.
Fermina Daza, the fiery and temperamental girl, who was obstinately wooed by whimsical Florenteno Ariza, the telegraph operator, goes much against the will of her father in courting Ariza but leaves him as she turns 21 for she feels that their love was immature and impulsive and marries much well off doctor Urbino with whom she feels more secure and financially stable and lives with him for decades till he dies one day when he falls from a tree while catching a parrot. On the day of Doctor Urbino’s funeral the old Florenteno Ariza, much to the chagrin of Fermina, confesses his inextinguishable love for her. Story switches between the present and past and the love story unfolds.
While Marquez most famed work is ‘100 years of Solitude’ I liked ‘Love in the Time of Cholera’ more because of two reasons; First that it’s a semi true Love story and second its is free from the magical realism that marks ‘100 years of Solitude’ . However both the works are labor of love and an absolute reader’s delight.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_in_the_time_of_cholera

Midnight’s Children: By Salman Rushdie
Saleem Sinai, the magical child, is born on midnight of 15th of August 1947 .And his destiny is linked with the destiny of his motherland which comes into existence at the same time as him. The story travels backward in time as he narrates his life to his to be wife Padma. Rushdie is a brilliant raconteur. The way he weaves his words amazes his readers.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight%27s_Children

Shame: By Salman Rushdie
Rushdie claims that this can be a story of any country but any observer of world politics can easily identify that this is about Pakistan. Written in the backdrop of General Zia and Zulfikar Bhutto’s relationship, this story revolves around two characters, the peripheral hero Omar Khayyam who is allegory of shamelessness and Sufia Zinobia who symbolize shame. This concoction of fact & fiction is a brilliant read.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shame_(novel)

Of Human Bondage: W. Somerset Maugham
This is story about Philip Carey and his relationships. Philip is a lame guy madly in love with Mildred. He is heartbroken when she leaves him for another man. But later when her lover does not marry her, she along with her baby returns back to Philip. Philip breaks his relationship with his then girlfriend and happily accepts Mildred. He looks after her and her baby but again one day she leaves him for Griffith who is a friend of Philip. He is devastated. He always knew that Mildred doesn’t love him and is taking advantage of him but he could not stop him from loving her. Like a placid river the story moves slowly and smoothly. the reader feels pity of Philip. Finally the story end in a happy note when Philip finds his love in a farmer’s daughter and becomes indifferent towards Mildred who becomes a prostitute.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Human_Bondage

Genre: Non Fiction
My areas of interest is History, Geo Politics and Philosophy and hence most the books in non fiction belong to these categories.

History of God: By Karen Armstrong
Karen Armstrong talks about the provenance of three great monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. She critically analyzes the circumstances in which these religions came into existence. The book is very factual and is free to a large extent of personal biases however at times one might feel that being a Christian nun she knows the follies of Christianity too well than the other two religions which she observe through text books and anecdote.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_God

Decline & Fall of Roman Empire: By Edward Gibbons
Before it was first published in 1776 , Edward Gibbon took about 20 years to complete this book. and . 236 years after that it still remains the most authoritarian book on this subject. It starts from the height of Roman Empire (Around 60-90 Ad) and covers a period till the fall of Constantinople in 15th century. The gradual decline of Roman Empire took 1500 years during which the empire was divided into two halves the western Roman Empire and the eastern Roman Empire. The western empire ended by 7-8th century but the eastern empire, popularly known as Byzantine Empire, continued till 14th century when it was finally conquered by the Turks.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire

The Wonder That was India: By A.L Basham
This book covers the history of India before the arrival of Islam. It studies the political and cultural landscape of India beginning with the Indus valley civilization till 700 AD. Basham devotes separate chapters on Prehistory, The State, Society, Everyday Life, Religion, Arts, and Language & Literature. When it was first published in 1954, it became an instant hit. It is a classic that anybody with an interest in the civilization beginning of India must read. It is work of uncompromisingly scholarship.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonder_That_Was_India

Freedom at Midnight: By Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins
In the preface of this book the authors reveal that they have collected about a ton of research documents for this book and it is very much evident when you read this master piece. This book gives an account of the political and social events of the last two years before the independence. The book is slightly favorable towards Lord Mountbatten but the authors can be condone for the fact that he was only key figure available for interviews when authors were researching as Gandhiji, Nehru, Patel and Jinnah had already become history. After reading this book my respect for Gandhiji increased to an extent which fell little short of deification.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_at_midnight

Story of Philosophy: By Will Durant
Those like me who wants to get initiated with philosophical doctrines but are unable to make sense of the contradicting and arcane philosophical text must first put there hands on this book. Durant very lucidly explains the life and teachings of Major Philosophers. Even after 80 years of its first publication it remains the best selling books in Philosophy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_Philosophy

Genre: Drama

Hayavadanah: By Girish Karnad
The plot comes from Kathasaritsagar, an ancient collection of stories in Sanskrit .This drama entails a woman’s struggle to satisfy her desire of physical love and her thirst for intellectualism that she finds in two different person. The play opens with Devdatta and Kapila who are close friends. Devdatta is a man of intellect and Kapila is a man of great physique. Their relationship gets complicated when Devdatta’s newly wedded wife Padmini falls for Kapila. While attempting to resolve this conflict, the two men behead themselves. Padmini is contemplating suicide when Goddess Kali intervenes and endows her with the powers to revive Kapila and Devdatta. In reattaching their fallen heads, Padmini transposes the heads onto the wrong bodies. An identity crisis ensues. Hayavadana explores the dilemma of physical versus intellectual appeal, and how it defines us.

Genre: Short Stories

Metamorphosis: By Franz Kafka
Gregor Samasa one morning suddenly turns into an insect and with this changes the attitude of his parents and sister towards him. This once blue eyed boy turns a liability on his family. The emotional bonding and strength of a relationship is need based is the central theme of this book. His father loathes him, his mother fears him and his sister sympathizes with him but gradually she too feels burdened looking after him. Death absolves him of his family and his family of him.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphosis_(novel)

Genre: Noir

In Cold Blood: By Truman Capote
One night the entire Clutter family is found murdered in Holcombe a small town in US. The book has two different narrations running in parallel which converges when the victims meet their killers. Truman Capote who covered this incident for a newspaper digs deep into the minds of killers. How at the impulse of moment some of the most heinous crimes are committed, how the past defines the present actions, are some of the questions which leave the reader pondering.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_cold_blood

मक्के गया गल मुकदी नाइ

मक्‍के गया गल मुक्दि नाहि,
पवें सौ सौ जुम्मे पड़ आयें,
गंगा गया गल मुक्दि नाहि,
पवें सौ सौ गोते ख़ईया,
गया गया गल मुक्दि नाहि
पवें सौ सौ पॅंड पड़ आइए
बुल्ले शाह गल तां या मुक्दि
जदू मैं नू दिलों गवाये

पढ़ पढ़ आलम फ़ाज़ल होया,
कदी अपने आप नू पढ़या नई,
जां जां वर्दां मंदिर मासिता,
कदी मन अपने विच वरया ही नहि,
ए वे रोज़ शैतान नाल लड़या
कदी नॅफ्ज़ अपने नाल लड़या ही नहि
बुल्ले शाह असमानी उड़ दिया फर्दा
जेडा घर बैठा वोनू फड़या ही नई

सिर ते टोपी ते नियत खोटी,
लेना की टोपी सिर धड़के,
तसबी फिरी पर दिल ना फिरया,
लेना की तसबी हथ फड़के,
चिल्ले कित्ते पर रब ना मिलया,
लेना की छिल्या विच वर्के
बुल्या जाग बिन दूध नई जमदा,
पावे लाल होये कदकद के

राती जागे ते शैख़ सदावें
पर रात नू जागन कुत्ते तैं थे उत्ते
राती भौके बस ना कर्दे फिर जेया लरण विच सुत्ते तैं थे उत्ते
यार ता बुहा मूल ना छड्डया पावें मरो सौ सौ जुत्ते तैं थे उत्ते
बुल्ले शाह उठ यार माना लाए नई ते बाज़ी लाई गये कुत्ते तैं थे उत्ते

ना मैं पूजा पाठ जो कीति
ते ना मैं गंगा नाहया
ना मैं पंज नामज़ा पद्रया
ते ना मैं तासबा खडकाया
ना मैं तीहो रोज़ें रखे
ते ना मैं चिल्ला गुमाया
बुल्ले शाह नू मुर्शद मिल्यया
उने ऐ वे जान बखस्या

-

हज़रत बाबा बुल्ले शाह

History of Philosophy: Periodization of Western Philosophy

Periodization of any evolutionary phenomena is always subjective and hence certainly moot. But then there are certain features which are so prominent that they become the logical parameters for demarcation. Time is one such parameter. Ancient, Medieval and Modern these are the most common periodization that can be applied in any temporal phenomenon. So here just for our convenience we divide western Philosophy in three ages: The ancient, the medieval and the modern age.

1) Ancient Age: The period stretches from 600 to 400 BC. In the development of ancient Philosophy, we have two separate periods: A period of Spontaneous creation and one of Skeptical reflection and reproduction. The problem that dominates the period of Spontaneous creation is the problem of the origin of things: The problem of becoming. It consists of two schools, the Ionian and the Italian Philosophers. Ionian propagated materialistic pantheism. The age of critical reflection is inaugurated by the motto of the Sophists that man is the measure of all things. It outlined that human understanding is a coefficient in the production of the phenomenon.

2) Medieval Ages: It stretches from 400 BC to about 15th Century.Although the development of philosophy is less transparent during the middle ages, we notice the two epochs that runs parallel with those of ancient philosophy. One, Platonic, realistic turned towards the past (from St. Augustine to Saint Anslem), the other, peripatetic, nominalistic towards future.

3) Modern Philosophy: It Dates from scientific and literary revival in the fifteenth century. It history represents:
i) A period of expansion and ontological synthesis (Bruno, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz)
ii) A period of critical reflection and analysis (essays concerning human understanding: Locke; Hume; Kant)
iii) A period of metaphysical reconstruction (Fichte, Hegel, Schopenhauer, etc)
iv) A period of varied critical and constructive tendencies.

गो ज़रा सी बात पे बरसों के याराने गए

गो ज़रा सी बात पे बरसों के याराने गए,
लेकिन इतना तो हुआ की कुछ लोग पहचाने गए

मैं इसे शोहरत कहूं या अपनी रुसवाई कहूं
मुझसे से पहले उस गली मैं मेरे अफ़साने गए

यूँ तो वो मेरी रग-ऐ-जां से थे नज़दीक तर
आंसुओं के धुंध में लेकिन न पहचाने गए

वहशतें कुछ इस तरह अपना मुक़द्दर हो गई
हम जहाँ पहुचे हमारे साथ वीराने गए

क्या क़यामत है की 'खातिर' कुश्ता-ऐ-शब् भी थे हम
सुबह जब हुई तो मुजरिम हम ही गर्दाने गए

' खातिर गजनवी '

History of Philosophy: What is Philosophy?

When I was a child, every summer, like most of my friends I would visit my grandparents. My paternal grandfather lived in a village about 800 KMs away from Jamshedpur (Where I spent 17 years of my life) and about 200 years back in time.
I found him intelligent even though he had a very minimal formal education. He dropped out of class 3 when was beaten by his master. Still he had all answers to my inquisitive mind.
In every visit of mine at least once he would talk about an earthquake which occurred when he was young. It was difficult for me to imagine him as young. I have always seen him old and sick lying folded on his bed with a towel tied around his back and legs enabling him to rock on his back. Every visit he would tell me that I have grown taller but to my surprise he always looked the same. I never found a change in him. Always lying on his bed and rocking on his back.
I asked him, what causes an earthquake? With an authority like a head master he explained that the Earth is placed on the hump of a giant tortoise that is in Vaikunth (the abode of Lord Vishnu). When the tortoise makes any movement the earth shakes and there is an earthquake. I believed him because he himself believed in this thesis. It was not a simple solution to a curious child’s mind but it was a deeply ingrained belief carried to this date by mythology . The exposition perfectly satisfied my curiosity.
Time passed by. My visit to my grandfather became more and more infrequent. The reason was my studies. But I vividly remembered his stories and his logics. As I studied Geography and Physics, I started doubting my Grandfather’s hypothesis. Gradually the doubt turned into negation and then ridicule. The reason of this was the ‘Plate tectonic’ theory's explanation of Earth quakes. It was very logical and made a lot of sense. I was convinced the same way as I got convinced about a decade back by the 'Tortoise hump' theory.
And then I read more of Geography and more of Science. From a Shallow Surface I dug deep into theories and again my beleif started shaking. From conviction it led to doubt, to utter confusion and then to despair. Many scientists have expressed the limitation of Science in predicting phenomenon. There are phenomena which cannot be expressed with available tools (mathematical formulas, theories, Logic etc) and this is the limitation of Science. It’s inability to express. The biggest challenge in front of scientists today is to express their understanding and this is where Science, like Theology or religion, becomes subjective.
So at this point I am unsure about the cause of an Earthquake. I can not take my grandfather’s theory and Science does not give me a definite and conclusive explanation.

Where I am now with respect to earthquake, early human beings were with respect to their existence. They wanted to know why they exist, what is this universe, who created it , what happens after death? And their quest was neither satisfied by categorical theologians nor the empiricists. There was a vast chasm between theology and Science. And that is when philosophy came into existence as a subject. It occupies the No man’s land between theology and Science. Like Science it is logical. Like theology it was speculative.
The book I am reading now is “The history of Western Philosophy” by Bertrand Russell. In that book Russell write:
"Philosophy, as I shall understand the word, is something intermediate between theology and Science. Like Theology, it consists of Speculations on matter as to which definite knowledge has so far, been unascertainable, but like science, it appeals to human reason rather than to authority, whether that of tradition or that of revelation."

In this Blog series, which I have named same as the book titled by Russell, I intend to collate philosophies of various philosophers from the time of antiquity till Date. The ideas would primarily from the books which I have read and it include 3 books.
1) The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant
2) The History of Philosophy by Weber & Perry
3) The History of Western Philosophy.
If all goes as I intend then I will take up Indian Philosophy and I am very keen on that.

Now coming back to earthquakes, how does Philosophy deals with it?
As of now, it doesn’t. Through ages philosophers have been trying to come up with answer to the primal question of being and becoming. Once that is done then probably philosophy will take up other issues, till that time I have to choose between the ‘Plate tectonics’ or the ‘Tortoise hump’ theory. Or else I will have to come up with my own theory which will convince me.

The Six Orthodox Hindu Philosophical System

The Sanskrit term for Philosophy is Darsana, derived from Dristi meaning View or Sight. During the 5th and the 6th century B.C following the Rise of Buddhism and Jainism , six orthodox (astika) religious philosophical system developed. They all accepted the authority of Veda although their interpretation differs on various points and include theistic, monistic, atheistic and dualistic views. Despite their differences these systems are regarded as complementary aspects of one truth seen from different points of view.
The six systems are usually coupled in pair. The second system of each pair is more a methodology than metaphysical schools. The pairs are

· Samkhya (Based on intellectual knowledge) and Yoga (On control of Senses and inner faculty)
· Vaisesika (The experimental point of view based on sensory experience) and Nyaya (Logical view based on Dialectics)
· Vedanta (Based on metaphysical speculations) and Mimamsa (Deistic and Ritualistic point of View based on sacred text)

The three main unorthodox systems (Nastika) are the Buddhist, Jaina and Charvaka. The first two deny the authority of Veda but believes in future life, while the materialist Charvaka denies both propositions.

Samkhya: The literal meaning of Samkhya is enumeration. It is system of dualistic realism attributed to semi mythical sage Kapila. The oldest extent Samkhya text is the Samkhyakarika of Isvarakrishna (3rd and 4th century AD)
Two ultimate eternal realities are recognized in this system: The spirit (Purusha) and Nature (Prakriti). Prakriti is a single, all pervasive, complex substance which evolves in the world into countless different shapes. Its three main constituents or Gunas are Sattava, Rajas and Tamas. Such guna has distinct characteristics which to some extent are antagonistic to others yet they always coexist and cooperate to produce everything in world. The unfolding of new world commences only when purusha and prakriti associate (Samyoga) whereupon Prakriti begins the long process of differentiation.
Initially the Samkhya system was atheistic, however under the influence of the yoga system with which it coalesced later, it became theistic.

Yoga: It accepts most of the Samkhya epistemology and also the view that individual souls emerge from the universal soul. Svetasvatra Upanishad states: “ Samkhya is knowledge; Yoga is practice”
The eight steps of yogic practice are:
- Yama (Restrain)
- Niyama (Disciplin )
- Asana (The adoption of comfortable position)
- Pranayama (The technique of breath control)
- Dharana (Concentration)
- Dhayana (Uninterrupted meditation)
- Samadhi (Total absorption)
In Yoga philosophy the Supreme Being is eternal, able to bring about association of the eternal divine principles or Prakriti and Purusha which results in unfolding of the cosmic process.

Vaisesika: This School of thought is said to be originated from legendary sage Kanada(Uluka) and is based on Vaisesika sutra.
The early Vaisesika promulgated an atomistic account of the universe. It was based on the concept that everything in the world (except soul, consciousness, time, space & mind) is composed of various combination of atoms which remains after a material object has been reduced to its smallest part.

Nyaya: This is a system of Logical realism founded by the sage Gautama also known as Aksapada. It is based on Nyaya Sutra, probably composed about the 2nd century AD. There are five clauses in Nyaya Philosophy:
- The proposition
- The cause
- The exemplification
- The recapitulation of the cause
- The conclusion
Nyaya teaching states the existence of ideas, beliefs, vision and emotions are all dependent on mind, since without a mind to think then they would not exist.

Vedanta: The term Vedanta means ‘The end of Vedas’ or the culmination of Vedic speculation. The basic text is the “Brahma Sutra” or “Vedanta Sutra” attributed to Badrayana and composed between 200 to 450 AD. The main schools within Vedanta are Advaita (non dualism), Visishtadvaita (qualified non dualism) and Dvaita (dualism).
The first systematisers were Gaudapada and Sankara who established the Advaita Vedanta. It is very similar to Sunyavada philosophy of Mahayana. Sankara based his doctrine or famous passage “Thou art that” (tat tavm asi) of the Chandogya Upanishad.

Mimamsa: Mimamsa means ‘Critical examination’or ‘solution of a problem by reflection’. The early Mimamsa is called the purvamimasa and the later the more complex Vedanta called Uttaramimamsa or Brahmamimsa which concentrates on teaching of Upanishadas..
It is the atheistic system attributed to Jamini and summarized in Mimasa Sutra. Miamsa system regards the Vedas as eternal and unchanging. It was forced to reject the usual cosmological view held almost universally in Hindu tradition that world would periodically come into being and dissolve. The world according to miasma, has always existed and is without beginning or end.

Components of Vedic Literature

The word Veda is derived from the root ‘Vid’, which means knowledge. Vedic Literature is called Sruti as they are considered to be secret knowledge or divine revelation. Though the hymns of Sruti are attributed to several Rishis (Sages), tradition maintains that these hymns were merely revealed to the sages and not composed by them. Hence, the Vedas are called the apurushya (not made by Man) and Nitya (Existing in eternity), while the sages are known as Mantradrashta meaning one who saw or received the mantra by right directly from supreme creator.
Composition: The Vedic literature consists of two parts.
- Samhitas
- Brahmanas: These are further divided in three parts
o Brahamanas pure and simple
o Aranyakas
o Upanishadas

Samhitas : These are collection of hymns sung in the praise of various gods. They are most essential part of Vedic literature. They are four in numbers: Rig Veda Samhita, Sama Veda Samhita, Yajur Veda Samhita & Atharva Veda Samhita.

Rig Veda: This is the Veda of praise. It consists of 1017 hymns (Suktas) supplemented by 11 others called Valakhilyas. It is divided in 10 books or Mandala. The oldest hymns are contained in Mandala II to VII and the latest in Madala I & X. Madala II to VII is composed by family of sages viz Gritsamada, Viswamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadhwaja & Vashista. Rig Veda’s hymns represent compositions of different periods by priestly poets of various families. It is purely a religious work, and most of the hymns are all invocations of God. In mandala III we find famous Gaytri mantra addressed to solar deity Savitri.

Sama Veda: Sama is derived from 'Saman' which means a song or melody. It consists of 1810 (or 1549 if one emits reputation) stanzaz. Except 75 stanzas, rest are taken from eight and ninth mandalas of Rig Veda and arranged according to the order in which they were chanted by Udgatri priests at soma sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origin of Indian music is traced to it.

Yajur Veda:(Vedas of Yajur or Formulae) consists of various mantras (hymns) for the purpose of recitation and rules to be observed at time of sacrifice. It is primarily a guide for the use of the adhvarya priests who performed the manual part of ritual. The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajpeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda. In contrast to Rig and Sama Veda which are in verse entirely this one is in both prose and verse. It is divided into two parts Krishna Yajur Veda and Sukla Yajur veda. The Krishna Yajur Veda is older of the two and contains not only the hymns but also prose commentaries. The Sukla Yajur Veda contains only the hymns. The former consists of four samhitas (the kathaka, kapisthala-katha, Maitrayan and Taittiriya Samhitas) but the latter has only the Vajasaneyi samhitas.

The Atharva Veda: (Veda of Atharvan or the knowledge of magic formulas) contains charms and spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases. Believed to be the work of non Aryans, it is divided into two parts: Paippalada and Saunaka.

Brahmanas: Belonging to the second great class of the Vedas; they are treaties relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. Their subject matter is ritual and language is prose. In short they deal with science of sacrifice. The important Brahmanas are:
1) Aitareya: Related to Rig veda
2) Kausitaki: Related to Rig veda
3) Tandyamaha: Related to Sama Veda
4) Jaiminiya: Related to Sama Veda
5) Taittiriya: Related to Yajur Veda
6) Sathapatha: Related to Yajur Veda
7) Gopatha: Related to Atharva Veda
Tandyamaha Brahmana is one of the oldest. It includes details about Vratyastoma, a ceremony through which people of non Aryan stock could be admitted into Aryan fold. Sathpatha Brahaman is most voluminous and most important of all the Brahamanas.

Aryanyakas: These forest books deals with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. They contain transitional material between the mythology and the ritual of the Samhita and the Brahmanas on the one hand and the philosophy and speculations of the Upanishadas on the other.

Upanishadas: They mark the culmination of Indian thought in the Vedic period. They criticize the rituals and lay stress on the value of right belief and knowledge. They are philosophical texts dealing with topics like the Universal soul, the absolute, individual self etc.
Of the several Upanishads, only 12 are very important. They are
1) Aitareya - Related to Rig veda
2) Kausitaki - Related to Rig veda
3) Chandogya - Related to Sama veda
4) Kena - Related to Sama veda
5) Taittiriya - Related to Yajur veda
6) Katha - Related to Yajur veda
7) Svetasvatra - Related to Yajur veda
8) Brihadaranyka - Related to Yajur veda
9) Isa - Related to Yajur veda
10) Mundaka - Related to Atharva veda
11) Prasna - Related to Atharva veda
12) Mandukya - Related to Atharva veda
Acoording to Upanishads there are two kinds of knowledge: The higher and the lower. The higher knowledge helps us to know the imperishable Brahman, while the lower can be gathered from four Vedas as well as six vedangas. The Mundaka upanishadas is chiefly notable for the clear distinction between higher knowledge of supreme Brahman and lower knowledge of empirical world.

Vedanga and Sutra Literature: In contrast to Vedic literature proper which is considered Sruti or divine revelation, the Vedangas are called Smriti or literature handed down by tradition because they are of human origin. There are 6 vedangas
1) Siksha (phonetics)
2) Kalpa (rituals)
3) Vyakarna (Grammer)
4) Nirukta (Etymology)
5) Chandas (Metrics)
6) Joytisha (Astronomy)
The vedangas are written in form of sutras i.e. condensed in prose style for memorization. Of all the sutras only Kalpa sutra have come down to us and these are divided into three classes
1) Saruta Sutras: Deals with the ritual of great sacrifices of Agni, Soma and animals
2) Grihya Sutras: Deals with domestic ceremonies and sacrifices to be made by house holder
3) Dharma Sutras: Deals with laws, manual and custom of people in general.